Methods of preparation of live attenuated bacterial vaccine by alteration of dna adenine methylase (dam) activity in those bacteria

ABSTRACT

Live attenuated bacteria vaccines are provided. Also provided are methods by which such vaccines can be obtained, including: a method by which a copy of the dam gene from a pathogenic bacteria is cloned into a plasmid capable of replication in the same bacteria species such that it is overexpressed from either a lac promoter, tac promoter, araBAD promoter, trc promoter, trp promoter, T7, SP6, or T5 bacteriophage promoters, a native promoter from that species, or other appropriate promoter. The plasmid containing the dam gene is then transferred into the pathogens to cause increased expression of Dam resulting in the formation of a live attenuated bacterial vaccines. Alternative methods for producing the vaccine are also provided including altering or replacing the chromosomal promoter for the native dam gene so as to alter Dam expression or mutating or replacing the native dam gene so as to alter the expression of Dam in a pathogenic bacteria.

This application claims priority from U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/439,796, filed Jan. 14, 2003 and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/439,790, filed Jan. 14, 2003. The entirety of each provisional application is incorporated herein by reference.

This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. MISVO81310 awarded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture-CSREES. The Government may have certain rights in this invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates to methods of preparation of avirulent live bacterial vaccines. Particularly, the present invention relates to attenuated live bacterial vaccines of the Pasteurellaceae family. More particularly, the invention is directed to methods of manufacturing live attenuated bacterial vaccines by the alteration of DNA adenine methylase (Dam) expression in the veterinary pathogens Pasteurella multocida, Mannheimia haemolytica, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Haemophilus somnus, Actinobacillus suis, and Haemophilus parasuis. More particularly, the inventors have discovered methods of manufacturing live attenuated bacterial vaccines wherein the alteration of DNA adenine methylase (Dam) expression in selected pathogens can be accomplished, for example, by 1) placing the Pasteurellaceae dam gene on a plasmid under the control of a promoter that causes increased dam expression in the particular bacteria species and results in live attenuated bacterial vaccines, 2) altering the chromosomal promoter for the dam gene so as to alter the expression of Dam in any of the above listed pathogenic bacteria, or 3) mutation of the dam gene so as to alter the expression of Dam in any of the above listed pathogenic bacteria. By altering Dam expression the bacteria is attenuated and suitable for use in live attenuated bacterial vaccines.

2. Background of the Technology

Livestock production is a major part of the world's agriculture economy. Disease annually depletes livestock populations and increases production costs. Either by prevention or post-infection treatment, the goal of limiting the impact of disease on livestock production is of great economic importance. Prior to the introduction of antibiotics, the practice of culling diseased animals and destroying them to prevent the spread of disease was, in many cases the only option open to the livestock producer.

During the past half century, the use of antibiotics has become vital for the treatment of bacterial infections in the livestock industry. The emergence of antibiotic resistance as a serious problem in human medicine has prompted concern about the public health implications of antibiotic use in agriculture. Antibiotics have been used in farm animals for three main reasons: 1) therapy to treat an identified illness, 2) prophylaxis to prevent disease in animals, and 3) performance enhancement to increase feed conversion, animal growth rate, or yield per animal.

Prevention of disease is always preferable to treatment of disease because treatments can be ineffective, costly, and due to the possibility of antibiotic resistance potentially unhealthful for consumers. The use of antibiotics as a preventive measure can also include the undesirable overuse of antibiotics.

Immunization of livestock against the effect of infectious diseases can be more effective than attempts to protect livestock with nonspecific antibiotic treatments. Conventional methods of immunization require the preparation of a vaccine using killed or weakened infectious organisms or agents. All too frequently, immunization failures in livestock might be attributed to one or more failures in the immunization process. The chemical or physical manipulations required for production of killed bacterial vaccines may alter the effectiveness of the immune response, causing vaccine failure. The immune response is very specific and the vaccine may contain organisms of the same family as the target disease, but if they are not of the same serotype (type within the family), the results may be disappointing. Vaccines can also lack the necessary potency or purity needed to properly stimulate an immune response in the vaccinated animal. Other problems commonly encountered in the vaccination of livestock may be outdated vaccine, improper handling or mixing of vaccines, or other delivery failures. For a variety of reasons, conventional vaccination of livestock can sometimes have disappointing results. For this reason, many livestock producers continue to rely on antibiotics as an infectious disease preventive measure.

There exists therefore a need to provide an effective method of preventing disease in livestock without the potential health hazard that can be associated with the prophylactic use of antibiotics in otherwise healthy livestock. Effective vaccines would be more economical and would avoid the potential for unnecessary antibiotic usage.

The concept of the present invention includes the preparation of attenuated live bacterial vaccines for a wide variety of pathogenic bacteria. Of particular interest to the inventors are the livestock diseases caused by veterinary pathogens Pasteurella multocida, Mannheimia haemolytica, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Haemophilus somnus, Actinobacillus suis, and Haemophilus parasuis.

The association of Pasteurella multocida with bovine respiratory disease (BRD) has been well known since the early 1950's¹. In most survey studies of feedlot BRD, Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica has been the most commonly isolated species, followed closely by Pasteurella multocida, with fewer cases of Haemophilus somnus ²⁻⁴. However, in some studies, P. multocida is the most common isolate^(5,6,) and many BRD investigators have become convinced that P. multocida is an important primary pathogen in BRD^(4,7). In young dairy calves, P. multocida is the most frequently isolated species from cases of pneumonia^(8,9) . P. multocida is a commensal occupant of the upper respiratory tract of cattle⁵; the induction of disease is often associated with stress, especially from transportation. Potential virulence factors include polysaccharide capsule¹⁰, lipopolysaccharide,^(11,12), iron-regulated outer membrane proteins^(13,14), proteases^(15,16), neuraminidase^(16,17), and porins^(17,18). Recently, signature tagged mutagenesis was employed to identify 25 genes that, when inactivated, reduce virulence in the mouse intraperitoneal model¹⁹. The predicted gene products fell into 4 categories: regulatory, biosynthetic, known virulence factors, and unknown or novel. The whole genome sequence of an avian P. multocida isolate was published in 2001²⁰, which allowed identification of 104 potential virulence-related genes. However, the mechanisms that control expression of these potential virulence factors have not been determined.

DNA adenine methylase (Dam) is an important virulence gene regulator in the Enterobacteriaceae. In E. coli, Dam regulates transcription of several pili operons, including the pap (pyelonephritis-associated pili)^(21,22), sfa (S pili), fae (K88 pili), and daa (F1845 pili) operons²³, and it regulates expression of a major outer membrane protein (Ag43)²⁴. A Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium dam mutant strain had altered expression of more than 20 in vivo-induced (ivi) genes (elevated by 2- to 18-fold in a dam inactivated mutant compared to a wild type dam positive strain)²⁵.

In bacterial species that possess a dam gene, alteration of dam expression causes substantial attenuation, as well as enhanced, protective antigenicity 25. A S. enterica serovar Typhimurium dam mutant had a LD₅₀ that was >10⁴ higher than wild type parent strain, and it was effective as a live attenuated vaccine after a single oral dose²⁵. An overexpressing dam strain was also highly attenuated in mice 25. In Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and Vibrio cholerae, inactivation of the dam gene was shown to be a lethal mutation²⁶. However, plasmid-mediated overexpression of the dam gene in Y. pseudotuberculosis resulted in a >6000-fold increase in LD₅₀ in mice compared to wild type and a 5-fold defect in colonization of V. cholerae in a suckling mouse model compared to wild type²⁶.

Although dam genes have been identified in the Pasteurellaceae as a result of genome sequencing projects^(20,27), there have been no reports of functional characterization of dam in any of these species.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This invention involves the preparation of avirulent live bacteria vaccines. The inventors have discovered methods of manufacturing live attenuated bacterial vaccines by the alteration of DNA adenine methylase (Dam) expression in pathogenic bacteria. Exemplary of the present invention, the inventors have discovered a method of preparation of attenuated live bacteria vaccines for the Pasteurellaceae family and more particularly for the veterinary pathogens Pasteurella multocida, Mannheimia haemolytica, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Haemophilus somnus, Actinobacillus suis, and Haemophilus parasuis.

One embodiment of the present invention provides a method of preparation of attenuated live bacteria vaccines that includes, for example, placing the Pasteurellaceae dam gene on a plasmid under the control of a promoter that causes increased dam expression in the particular bacteria species and results in effective live attenuated bacterial vaccines. Another embodiment of the present invention provides a method of preparation of attenuated live bacteria vaccines that includes altering the chromosomal promoter for the dam gene so as to alter Dam expression. Still another embodiment of the present invention for the preparation of live attenuated bacterial vaccines includes the mutation of the dam gene so as to alter the expression of Dam in the pathogenic bacteria.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows differential digest results of P. multocida and M. haemolytica. Lane 1 shows M. haemolytica digested with Mbo I. Lane 2 shows, M. haemolytica digested with Dpn I. Lane 3 shows M. haemolytica digested with Sau3A I. Lane 4 shows P. nultocida digested with Mbo I. Lane 5 shows P. multocida digested with Dpn I. Lane 7 shows P. multocida digested with Sau3A I.

FIG. 2 shows differential digests results of DG105, DG98, DG105/pCLPm2, and DG105/pCLPm3. Lane 1 shows DG105 digested with Mbo I. Lane 2 shows DG105 digested with Dpn I. Lane 3 shows DG105 digested with Sau3A I. Lane 4 shows DG98 digested with Mbo I. Lane 5 shows DG98 digested with Dpn I. Lane 6 shows DG98 digested with Sau 3 A I. Lane 7 shows DG 105/pCLPm3 digested with Mbo I. Lane 8 shows DG105/pCLPm3 digested with Dpn I. Lane 9 shows DG105/pCLPm3 digested with Sau3A I. Lane 10 shows DG105/pCLPm2 digested with Mbo I. Lane 11 shows DG105/pCLPm2 digested with Sau3A I. Lane 12 shows DG105/pCLPm2 digested with Sau3A I.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The specific embodiment of the present invention described herein and shown in FIGS. 1-2 is a non-limiting example of the inventors' discovery of novel attenuated live bacteria vaccines and methods of producing the same. The detailed description of the method of vaccine preparation provided below includes the exemplary processes employed to produce attenuated live bacteria vaccines of the Pasteurellaceae family. It is within the concept of the present invention to produce vaccines for a wide variety of bacterial pathogens using any of the methods disclosed herein. The invention is limited only by the claims of the present application.

The following exemplary embodiments of the present invention involve the alteration of DNA adenine methylase (Dam) expression in veterinary pathogenic bacteria. The inventors have discovered that altered Dam expression in veterinary pathogens causes them to be attenuated in their natural host(s) and to be effective as live, attenuated vaccines. Of particular interest are such vaccines developed for the Pasterurellaceae family; to include, Pasteurella multocida, Mannheimia haemolytica, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Haemophilus somnus, Actinobacillus suis, and Haemophilus parasuis; although it is within the concept of the present invention to apply the discovery of the present invention and the methods disclosed herein to the production of a wide variety of bacterial vaccines.

As shown in the first non-limiting example provided below, the inventors discovered that an effective live vaccine can be obtained when a copy of the dam gene from one of the pathogens listed above is cloned into a plasmid capable of replication in the same Pasteurellaceae species such that it is overexpressed from either a lac promoter, tac promoter, araBAD promoter, trc promoter, trp promoter, T7, SP6, or T5 bacteriophage promoters, a native promoter from that species, or other appropriate promoter. The plasmid containing the Pasteurellaceae dam gene is then transferred into the pathogens to cause increased expression of Dam and results in the formation of a live attenuated bacterial vaccines. To ensure plasmid stability, a mutation is created in a gene located in the chromosome of the bacteria carrying the plasmid such that said bacteria cannot survive under certain conditions, and an intact copy of this mutated gene is expressed from the same plasmid carrying the Pasteurellaceae dam gene. This mutation can be made in any gene essential for survival of the bacterial under certain conditions.

EXAMPLES

Bacterial strains and plasmids. A list of the bacterial strains and plasmids employed in this example of the concept of the present invention is shown in Table 1. Sources of the bacterial strain and plasmids are as shown in Table 1, with some being provided by the inventors from the study associated with this present application. Escherichia coli strains were grown at 37° C. on Luria-Bertani (LB) agar or broth. Pasteurella multocida and Mannheimia haemolytica strains were grown at 37° C. on brain heart infusion (BHI) agar or broth. For plasmid maintenance, antibiotics were added to the following final concentrations: ampicillin, 200 μg/ml; kanamycin, 50 μg/ml; and streptomycin, 80 μg/ml. Isopropyl 6-D-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) and 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl β-D-galactopyranoside (X-gal) were used at final concentrations of 80 μM and 70 μg/ml, respectively, for blue white screening on LB agar. TABLE 1 Bacterial strains and plasmids Description Source Bacterial strain Pasteurella Wild type serotype A1 ATCC multocida 11039 Mannheimia Wild type USDA National haemolytica Animal Disease D153 Center E. coli Cloning strain contains an F′ Stratagene XL1-Blue episome with lacI^(q) Z ΔM15 for MRF′ blue white screening E. coli DG98 Parent strain for DG105 ATCC E. coli DG105 dam mutant (dam-13, lacI^(q)) ATCC Plasmid pT7Blue Commercial cloning vector Novagen pGEM-3Z Commercial cloning vector Promega pBluescript Commercial cloning vector Stratagene SK⁻ pCLPm1 pGEM-3Z with 1.4 kb P. multocida This study chromosomal EcoR I insert containing the 3′ end of aroB and the first 672 bp of dam pCLPm2 pT7Blue with 3.0 kb insert This study containing P. multocida dam; oriented so that dam is in opposite orientation from lacZ promoter pCLPm3 pBluescript with same insert as This study pCLPm2; dam gene oriented so that it is expressed from lacZ promoter pLS88 E. coli shuttle vector that ³³ replicates in Pasteurellaceae pLSdam pLS88 with pCLPm3 insert; lacZ This study promoter removed pLSdam2 pLS88 with pCLPm3 insert; lacZ This study promoter intact

Detection of dam function in P. multocida and M. haemolytica. To determine whether P. multocida and M. haemolytica contain functional dam genes, the inventors used differential digestion with restriction endonucleases Sau3A I, Mbo I, and Dpn I²⁸. First, genomic DNA was isolated from 100 ml cultures of P. multocida 11039 and M. haemolytica D153 by phenol/chloroform extraction followed by precipitation with isopropanol²⁹. Genomic DNA was then digested with Sau3A I, Dpn I and Mbo I (New England BioLabs, Beverly, Mass. USA) and visualized by agarose gel electrophoresis.

Cloning the P. multocida A1 dam gene. A 459 bp fragment of the P. multocida A1 dam gene was amplified from strain 11039 chromosomal DNA using primers HAPdamP1 having nucleotide sequence GGGCGCTGGAGCAGTATT (SEQ ID NO. 1) and HAPdam M1 having nucelotide sequence TGTAGCGGAGCATAAGGT (SEQ ID NO. 2), which were designed from the Haemophilus influenzas dam sequence. Cycle conditions were at 95° C. for 30 seconds, 66° C. for 1 min, and 72° C. for 45 s for 35 cycles, with an initial denaturation step at 95° C. for 2 min and a final extension step at 72° C. for 10 min. The 459 bp amplicon was isolated from a 0.7% agarose gel and eluted using QIAQuick Gel Extraction Kit (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif. USA) and used as template for a second round of PCR using the same primers and conditions.

To clone the P. multocida EcoR I fragment containing the dam gene, EcoR I digested P. multocida chromosomal DNA was cloned into EcoR I digested pGEM-3Z. Following transformation of the ligation into XL1-Blue MRF′ by electroporation, white colonies were screened by colony hybridization using the 459 bp dam amplicon as a probe. Plasmid DNA from a positive clone was isolated and found to contain a 1.4 kb insert; this plasmid was designated pCLPm1.

Initial sequencing of the pCLPm1 insert indicated that it did not contain the 3′ end of the dam gene. Subsequent to this cloning step, the P. multocida A3 chromosomal sequence became available²⁰; therefore, the A3 chromosomal sequence flanking the dam gene was analyzed for PCR primer suitability using Oligo version 5.0 (Molecular Biology Insights, Cacade, Colo. USA). Two oligonucleotide primers, Pm1219DamM having nucleotide sequence TGAGGAAACGGTCTGGTTTCTC (SEQ ID NO. 3) and Pm1223DamP having nucleotide sequence GCTGGAAAATTGCGTCTCGTC (SEQ ID NO. 4), were selected and synthesized by Sigma Genosys (The Woodlands, Tex. USA). Using P. multocida ATCC 11039 genomic DNA as the template, a 3 kilobase amplicon containing the P. multocida dam gene was amplified by PCR under the following cycling conditions: 95° C. for 30 seconds, 64° C. for 1 min, and 72° C. for 2 min for 35 cycles, with an initial denaturation step at 95° C. for 2 min and a final extension step at 72° C. for 10 min.

The 3 kb P. multocida PCR fragment containing the dam gene was ligated into pT7Blue (Novagen, Madison, Wis. USA) by blunt end ligation using the Perfectly Blunt Cloning Kit (Novagen), followed by transformation into NovaBlue Singles Competent Cells (Novagen). Plasmid DNA was isolated from white colonies using the QIAprep spin miniprep kit (Qiagen), and one clone with the predicted insert size was selected and designated pCLPm2.

Sequence determination, assembly, and analysis. To determine the complete sequence of the P. multocida A1 dam gene, portions of the pCLPm1 and pCLPm2 inserts were sequenced on both strands using the Applied Biosystems Dye Terminator Cycle Sequencing Ready Reaction Kit protocol for sequencing double stranded plasmid DNA. Primers Universal and T7 were used for the initial sequencing reactions, and subsequent reactions used custom oligonucleotide primers (Sigma Genosys). Sequencing reactions were resolved on an Applied Biosystems Prism 310 Genetic Analyzer. Sequence results were assembled using SeqMan v5.0 (DNAStar, Madison, Wis.) and compared with published dam gene sequences using BLAST³⁰. Percent identities were determined using the CLUSTAL W method³¹ with MegAlign v5.0 (DNAStar). Prokaryotic promoters were predicted with the assistance of Neural Network Promoter Prediction³². The final sequence of the P. multocida A1 dam gene was deposited in GenBank (accession AF411317).

Expression of the P. multocida A1 dam gene from a lacZ promoter. To orient the P. multocida dam gene downstream of a lacZ promoter, the insert from pCLPm2 was subcloned into pBluescript. Using pCLPm2 DNA as template, a 3 kilobase fragment containing the P. multocida dam gene was amplified by PCR using AmpliTaq DNA polymerase (Perkin Elmer, Boston, Mass. USA) with primers 17 and U19. Optimal PCR conditions were the same as previously described for amplification of the 3 kb P. multocida dam fragment, except the annealing temperature was changed to 57° C. for 1 min per cycle. The 3 kb band was excised from a 0.7% agarose gel, and DNA was eluted using the Qiaquick gel extraction kit. The ends of the 3 kb fragment were digested with BainH I and Sal I and ligated into pBluescript. One clone with the predicted insert size was selected and designated pCLPm3. One end of the insert was sequenced to confirm correct orientation of the dam gene in relation to the lacZ promoter using the T3 primer.

Complementation of an E. coli dam mutant. Plasmids pCLPm2 and pCLPm3 were transferred into E. coli dam mutant strain DG105 by electroporation²⁹. To assess dam function in the resulting strains, genomic DNA from DG105, DG105 with pCLPm2, DG105 with pCLPm3, and E. coli parent strain DG98 was isolated, digested with Sau3A I, Dpn I and Mbo I, and analyzed by 0.5% agarose gel electrophoresis.

Effect of P. multocida dam expression on spontaneous mutation frequency in E. coli. Overexpression of the native E. coli dam gene in E. coli causes an increased spontaneous mutation frequency. To determine whether overexpression of the P. multocida dam gene has the same effect in E. coli, the inventors compared the spontaneous mutation frequencies of dam mutant DG105, parent strain DG98, DG105 with pCLPM2, and DG105 with pCLPm3. The spontaneous development of resistance to rifampin was used to measure mutability of the strains. Briefly, 5 ml cultures of each strain were started from single colonies, incubated for 18 h, and aliquots (0.1 ml) of the diluted suspensions were spread in triplicate on BHI plates with 100 μg/ml of rifampin. The cultures were also serially diluted in phosphate buffered saline (PBS), and viable bacterial counts were determined by spreading diluted bacterial suspensions on BHI plates without antibiotics.

Mutation rates for each strain were determined by dividing the number of rifampin-resistant mutants by the total viable bacterial counts. Four independent replicates of the experiment were run from separate bacterial cultures, and the average mutation rates of the strains were compared by analysis of variance (ANOVA) for a randomized complete block design with run as the blocking factor. If significant differences among strains were found at the 5% level of significance, means were separated using the least significant difference test and 95% confidence intervals were calculated to characterize the biological importance of those differences. The homogeneity of variances and normality assumptions necessary for valid application of ANOVA were examined by Levene's test and by stem-and-leaf and normal probability plots, respectively. Statistical computations were performed using the SAS System for Windows, Version 8 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, N.C.).

Effect of dam overexpression in P. multocida. To overexpress the P. multocida dam gene in strain 11039, the insert from pCLPm3 was transferred into pLS88, a shuttle vector that replicates both in E. coli and in the Pasteurellaceae 33. Two pLS88 derivatives were constructed from pCLPm3: pLSdam, which has the P. multocida dam gene expressed from its native promoter, and pLSdam2, which has the P. multocida dam gene expressed from the lacZ promoter.

To construct pLSdam, a 1.7 kb fragment was amplified from pCLPm3 by PCR using primers T7P1 having nucleotide sequence GGATCCTGCGTTATCCCC (SEQ ID NO. 5) and CLdamM20 having nucleotide sequence TCTAGATGTTGCCAATGC (SEQ ID NO. 6). Cycle conditions were at 95° C. for 30 seconds, 67.5° C. for 1 min, and 72° C. for 30 s for 35 cycles, with an initial denaturation step at 95° C. for 2 min and a final extension step at 72° C. for 10 min. The 1.7 kb amplicon was digested with BainH I and Xba I, which removed the lacZ promoter, and ligated into BamHI and Xba-digested pLS88.

To construct pLSdam2, pCLPm3 was digested with Afl III and HinD III, followed by treatment with the Klenow fragment of DNA polymerase I to create blunt ends. The resulting 1.6 kb fragment from pCLPm3 retained the P. multocida dam gene downstream of the lacZ promoter. The 1.6 kb fragment was excised from a 0.7% agarose gel, eluted using the Qiaquick gel extraction kit, and ligated into EcoR V-digested pLS88.

Both pLSdam and pLSdam2 were transferred into P. multocida 11039 by electroporation using described conditions³⁴ with a BioRad Gene Pulser II. Spontaneous mutation frequencies were determined for wild type strain 11039, 11039 with pLSdam, and 11039 with pLSdam2 by measuring the development of rifampin resistance using the method described above for E. coli strains. Five individual replicates were run for each strain: 11039, 11039/pLSdam, and 11039/pLSdam2.

Mouse virulence assay. The virulence of 11039/pLSdam2 was compared to 11039 using a mouse model with five mice per treatment. Female 6-8 week old BALB/cJ mice were obtained from the Jackson Laboratory (Bar Harbor, Me. USA), randomly divided into nine cages, and allowed to acclimate for one week. Bacterial broth cultures (11039 and 11039/pLSdam2) were incubated for 18 h and serially diluted in normal saline solution. Mice were injected intraperitoneally with 0.1 ml of an appropriate dose of either 11039 or 11039/pLSdam2. Four treatments were challenged with varying doses of 11039, four were challenged with 11039/pLSdam2, and one treatment was sham exposed to PBS. Mice were monitored for seven days, and mice surviving at the end of the challenge were euthanized.

Results

Phenotypic detection of Dam function in P. multocida and M. haemolytica. Sau3A I, Dpn L and Mbo I all recognize and cleave GATC sequences. However, Dpn I only cleaves GATC sites whose adenine residue has been methylated, while Mbo I only cleaves umnethylated GATC sites. Sau3A I cleaves GATC sites regardless of methylation state. Therefore, differential digestion of bacterial genomic DNA with Sau3A I, Dpn I, and Mbo I can be used to detect Dam activity. Our results indicated that both P. multocida strain 11039 and M. haemolytica strain D153 have functional Dam activity (See FIG. 1).

P. multocida A1 dam gene sequence results. The P. multocida A1 dam sequence was found to be 99.4% identical to the published P. multocida A3 dam sequence (5 nucleotide differences). The deduced amino acid sequences of the P. multocida A1 and A3 Dam proteins were 100% identical.

As expected, the P. multocida dam gene had higher sequence identity with the H. influenzae dam gene than with the other reported bacterial dam gene sequences (Table 2). Among gram-negative species, the dam gene is well conserved across four families, with identities ranging between 5060%. The P. multocida dam gene was the largest of the known dam gene sequences (Table 2). By CLUSTAL W alignment, the additional coding sequence for the P. multocida dam gene was located at the 5′ end of the gene, with an extra 39 bp at the 5′ end of the gene compared to H. influenzae dam and an extra 72 bp at the 5′ end compared to dam sequences from other species. TABLE 2 DNA adenine methylase gene comparisons between P. multocida and other gram-negative species Size Nucleotide Amino acid Species (nucleotides) identity identity Accession Pasteurella 903 — — AF411317 multocida Haemophilus 861 68.9 68.2 U32705 influenzas Escherichia coli 837 58.2 55.4 V00272 Salmonella enterica 837 58.5 55.0 AE008860 Serratia marcescens 813 57.4 51.9 X78412 Yersinia 816 52.1 51.3 AF274318 pseudotuberculosis Vibrio cholerae 834 60.0 56.7 AF274317 Neisseria 816 57.2 47.2 AF091142 meningitidis

The E. coli dam gene is part of a superoperon that includes several genes under complex regulatory control³⁵. Immediately upstream of E. coli dam is urf; which is preceded by aroB and aroK. A 90 bp gap is between arob and urf, and a 100 bp gap is between aroK and urf. The aroK and aroB products function in aromatic amino acid biosynthesis, while urf and dam are involved in cell cycle regulation. No promoter activity is located immediately of E. coli dam, but a weak promoter is located upstream of urf within the aroB sequence³⁵. Another strong promoter is located upstream of aroB.

By contrast, aroB in P. multocida is located immediately upstream of dam with only a 4 bp gap between the genes, which is similar to the arrangement in H. influenzas. Our promoter analysis detected a potential promoter upstream of P. multocida dam within the aroB coding sequence. The S′ end of this promoter was located 115 bp upstream of the P. multocida dam start codon and had the sequence TGGAAA-17 bp-TAGCGT-5 bp-G.

Complementation of an E. coli dam mutant. As described above in Methods, pCLPm2 contains the P. multocida dam gene cloned in the opposite orientation of the lacZ promoter in pT7Blue, while pCLPm3 contains the P. multocida dam gene oriented downstream of the lacZ promoter in pBluescript. When they were transferred into E. coli dam mutant strain DG105, both plasmids were able to restore Dam function (See FIG. 2). The pCLPm2 insert contained only 117 bp of native P. multocida chromosomal sequence upstream of the dam start codon; this indicated that the potential promoter identified within the 115 bp upstream of the P. multocida dam gene is functional.

Effect of P. multocida dam expression on spontaneous mutation frequency in E. coli. As expected, the spontaneous mutation frequency of E. coli dam mutant DG105 was significantly higher than the mutation rate of the parent wild type strain DG98 (Table 3). The mutation rate of DG105/pCLPm2 was also significantly higher than wild type, and although the mutation rate of DG105/pCLPm3 was not significantly higher than wild type, it was similar to the mutation rate for DG105/pCLPm2. DG105 had a higher mutation rate than both DG105/pCLPm2 and DG105/pCLPm3, although the difference was not statistically significant. TABLE 3 Spontaneous mutation frequency in E. coli strains DG98, DG105, DG105/pCLPm2, and DG105/pCLPm3 Strain Mutation rate* Ratio† DG98 0.24 ± 0.06^(a) DG105 7.43 ± 3.18^(b) 30.7 DG105/pCLPm2 4.85 ± 3.08^(b) 20.1 DG105/pCLPm3  4.33 ± 2.28^(ab) 17.9 *Number of mutants per 10⁷ CFU †Ratio of mutation rate for the indicated strain divided by the mutation rate for DG98.

The increased mutation rates of DG105/pCLPm2 and DG105/pCLPm3 compared to wild type indicates that overexpression of the P. multocida dam gene causes increased spontaneous frequency in E. coli. Increased mutation frequency has already been demonstrated in E. coli overexpressing an E. coli dam gene³⁶. The mutation rates of DG105/pCLPm2 and DG105/pCLPm3 were similar; apparently the native dam promoter in pCLPm2 was just as effective in expressing dam in E. coli as the lacZ promoter.

Effect of dam overexpression in P. multocida. Plasmid pLSdam is similar to pCLPm2 in that the insert contains the P. multocida dam gene under the control of its native promoter, while pLSdam2 is similar to pCLPm3 in that dam is expressed from a lac promoter. Both plasmids were transferred into P. multocida 11039 to determine whether the native dam promoter would be as effective in causing overexpression in P. multocida as it was in E. coli.

Surprisingly, transfer of pLSdam actually lowered the spontaneous mutation rate of strain 11039 compared to the wild type strain, although the difference was not statistically significant (Table 4). However, 11039/pLSdam2 had a significantly higher spontaneous mutation rate compared to 11039, demonstrating that this strain had increased Dam activity and that the lac promoter was effective in causing dam overexpression in P. multocida. TABLE 4 Spontaneous mutation frequency in P. multocida strain 11039, 11039/pLSdam, and 11039/pLSdam2 Strain Mutation rate* Ratio† 11039 0.30^(a) 11039/pLSdam 0.14^(a) 0.47 11039/pLSdam2 2.37^(b) 7.9 *Number of mutants per 10⁷ CFU †Ratio of mutation rate for the indicated strain divided by the mutation rate for 11039.

Mouse virulence assay. A mouse virulence trial indicated that 11039/pLSdam retained full virulence compared to 11039, which was expected because the mutation rates of 11039 and 11039/pLSdam were not significantly different. However, a virulence assay with 11039/pLSdam2 demonstrated that this strain was clearly attenuated in mice compared to wild type strain 11039. Mice exposed to wild type strain 11039 were injected with 11 CFU/mouse, 23 CFU/mouse, 113 CFU/mouse, and 227 CFU/mouse; all four doses had 100% mortality. Mice exposed to 11039/pLSdam2 were injected with 17 CFU/mouse, 86 CFU/mouse, 171 CFU/mouse, and 856 CFU/mouse; all four doses had 0% mortality. Sham control mice also had 0% mortality.

Discussion

The inventors have demonstrated the function of DNA adenine methylase from P. multocida, which is an important etiologic agent of BRD in cattle. In other bacterial species, Dam is important in regulating and coordinating several cell functions, including initiation of chromosome replication, DNA repair, and gene transcription. As a result of its role in DNA repair, bacteria with altered Dam activity have increased mutability. Its role in regulation of gene transcription, particularly genes involved in pathogenicity, causes strains with altered Dam activity to be attenuated. The inventors compared P. multocida Dam function to Dam proteins from other bacterial species by measuring the effects of altered Dam activity on these two phenotypes: spontaneous mutation frequency and virulence in a mouse model.

E. coli dam mutants have an increased rate of spontaneous mutations, increased sensitivity to ultraviolet radiation and to base analogues such as 2-aminopurine (2-AP), and inviability when combined with a recA, recB, or recC mutation³⁷⁻³⁹. Dam methylates DNA at the N⁶ position of adenine within GATC recognition sequences⁴⁰, which allows the methyl-directed mismatch repair system to distinguish between the template and nascent strands to correct misincorporated bases during DNA replication^(37,41). Interestingly, overproduction of Dam also increases mutability because methylation of the daughter strand occurs too quickly, which also prevents the mismatch repair system from distinguishing between the template and daughter strands^(36,42).

P. multocida Dam has 55% identity with E. coli Dam, and the inventors demonstrated that it is able to complement an E. coli dam mutant. In addition, overproduction of P. multocida Dam in E. coli caused an approximate 20-fold increase in the spontaneous mutation frequency. This result is similar to the effect of increased native Dam activity in E. coli; a mutant with 50-fold increase in Dam activity had a corresponding 30-fold increase in development of spontaneous rifampin resistance³⁶.

The potential native dam promoter sequence identified on pCLPm2 (located within the aroB coding sequence) appeared relatively weak, having 5/12 mismatches compared to the E. coli consensus promoter. In E. coli, the promoter upstream of dam and urf located within the aroB coding sequence is also relatively weak, having 3- to 4-times less activity than another promoter located upstream of aroB³⁵. Therefore, it was surprising that the spontaneous mutation frequency in DG105/pCLPm2 was similar to that of DG105/pCLPm3 because it was expected the lac promoter in pCLPm3 would cause increased Dam activity compared to the pCLPm2 construct with a concurrent increase in mutation frequency.

By comparison, when the P. multocida dam gene was expressed from its native promoter in strain 11039 using shuttle vector pLS88 (pLSdam), there was no significant increase in spontaneous mutation frequency. On the other hand, expression of P. multocida dam from a lacZ promoter in 11039 (pLSdam2) did cause increased spontaneous mutation frequency. One possible explanation for the different effects of the native dam promoter on spontaneous mutation frequency in E. coli and P. multocida is that the high copy number of pT7Blue, a pUC derivative, may be the cause of increased Dam production in E. coli. pLS88 is not likely to have as high copy numbers in P. multocida. Alternatively, dam expression from the native promoter may be subject to transcriptional regulation in P. multocida, and the transcriptional regulator that controls dam expression may not be present in E. coli, resulting in unrestricted expression.

Dam overproducing strains of Salmonella enterica, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, and Vibrio cholerae are all attenuated^(25,35). Similarly, our Dam overproducing P. multocida strain was attenuated using a mouse model. The attenuation of strains with altered dam expression is apparently due to “inappropriate” expression of virulence factors that results from the failure of Dam to regulate their transcription²⁵. In Salmonella, a similar attenuating effect occurs in dam deletion mutants²⁵; mutation of the dam gene is lethal in Y. pseudotuberculosis and V. cholerae ²⁶.

Interestingly, the inappropriate expression of virulence factors in Dam altered strains not only causes attenuation, but it also renders them highly effective as live attenuated vaccines^(25,26,43). Although P. multocida immunogens have been identified that have potential as vaccines^(44,45), there is still a need for an effective P. multocida BRD vaccine. Killed bacterins have had little effect in preventing BRD⁴⁶; however, live vaccines have demonstrated efficacy⁴⁶⁻⁴⁸.

In the non-limiting example described above, the inventors have demonstrated that alteration of dam expression in P. multocida can enable the development of a live attenuated vaccine. It is entirely within the concept of the present invention to provide novel attenuated live bacteria vaccines for a wide range of other pathogens, which can include, for example, bacteria selected from the group including Salmonella, E. Coli, Haemophilus, Streptococcus, Helicobacter, Shigella, Bibrio, Treponeina, Yersinia, Neisseria, Porphyronionas, Legionella, Actinobacillus, Pasteurella, Mannheimia, and the like.

In addition to the detailed discussion of a first embodiment of the present invention, alternative embodiments of the present invention include methods of altering Dam expression to obtain effective life vaccines by 1) altering the chromosomal promoter for the dam gene so as to alter Dam expression or 2) mutation of the dam gene so as to alter the expression of Dam in any of the above listed pathogenic bacteria. The bacteria having the altered chromosomal promoter for the dam gene or having a mutated dam gene then fails to properly express Dam and is rendered non-pathogenic and by altering Dam expression the bacteria is attenuated and is suitable for use in live attenuated bacterial vaccines.

In the first alternative embodiment, the promoter for the native dam gene in the chromosome of one of the pathogens of the Pasteurellaceae family is replaced with a promoter that would cause increased Dam expression in the bacteria so as to render it non-pathogenic. It is also within the scope of the invention, that in this first alternative embodiment, the replacement promoter would cause decreased Dam expression in the bacteria, which would also serve to render the bacterial non-pathogenic and suitable for use as an attenuated live bacteria vaccine. Acceptable methods for the replacement of the promoter would be known and understood by one of ordinary skill in the art.

In a second alternative embodiment, the native dam gene in one of the pathogens of the Pasteurellaceae family is mutated. The mutation can be achieved either by using the cloned native dam gene from the pathogen to mutate the chromosomal copy of the dam gene by homologous recombination, or by transposon mutagenesis, or by site-directed mutagensis.

Dam activity may be increased or decreased, and Dam activity may be altered on any level, including transcription and/or translation. With respect to translation, for example, activity can be altered in any number of ways, including the amount of protein produced and/or that nature (i.e., structure) of the protein produced. For example, a mutation could result in increasing or reducing the amount of Dam produced by the cell (due to affecting transcriptional and/or post-transcriptional events); alternatively, a mutation could give rise to an altered Dam with altered activity. Generating mutations and mutants which alter Dam activity use techniques, are well known in the art. For example in the first alternative embodiment of the present invention, Dam production can be increased or lowered by using a promoter which is known to initiate transcription at a higher or lower level. Assays to determine level of transcription from a given transcriptional regulatory element such as a promoter are well known in the art.

In the second alternative embodiment of the present invention, a different dam gene could be used that is known to produce higher or lower levels of Dam than is found in the wild type bacteria without departing from the scope of the inventor's discovery. Mutations can be made within the dam gene itself (including transcriptional and/or translational regulatory elements) as well as a gene or genes which affect Dam production and/or activity.

By one embodiment of the present invention, pathogenic bacteria are made attenuated, preferably avirulent, as a result of a non-reverting mutation that is created in at least one gene, which thereby alters the expression of Dam. The regulation of genes by Dam is sensitive to Dam concentrations; therefore, over-expression of Dam as well as under-expression of Dam results in the attenuation of the pathogen. In the second embodiment of the present invention, the mutation is preferably made in the dam gene itself, however, it is within the concept of the present invention that the vaccines according to the present invention may be produced by mutating a related gene or genes either upstream or downstream of the dam gene, whose expressed product activates or represses the dam gene or, in the alternative, a mutation is constructed in at least one virulence gene that is regulated by Dam.

While a single non-reverting mutation provides a high degree of security against possible reversion to virulence, it is within scope of the invention to provide additional security in a second separate and unrelated mutation.

Further, while the present invention has been described with reference to specific embodients and exemplary bacteria species, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that a variety of changes may be made and the substitution of equivalents may be made without departing from the true spirit and scope of the present invention. Many modifications may be made to adapt a particular situation or a particular selected pathogen to the inclusive concept of the present invention. All such modifications or adaptations are intended to be within the scope of the claims appended hereto.

The complete disclosure of all references cited in this application are fully incorporated herein by reference.

REFERENCES

1. Carter G. Observations on the pathology and bacteriology of shipping fever in Canada. Can J Comp Med 1954; 18:359-64.

2. Collier J. Pasteurellae in bovine respiratory disease. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1969; 140:807-10.

3. Scheifer B, Ward G E, Moffatt R E. Correlation of microbiological and histological findings in bovine fibrinous pneumonia. Vet Pathol 1978; 15:313-321.

4. Purdy C W, Raleigh R H, Collins J K, et al. Serotyping and enzyme characterization of Pasteurella haemolytica and Pasteurella multocida isolates recovered from pneumonic lungs of stressed feeder calves. Curr Microbiol 1997; 34:244-9.

5. Allen J W, Viel L, Bateman K G, et al. The microbial flora of the respiratory tract in feedlot calves: associations between nasopharyngeal and bronchoalveolar lavage cultures. Can J Vet Res 1991; 55:341-6.

6. Singer R S, Case J T, Carpenter T E, et al. Assessment of spatial and temporal clustering of ampicillin- and tetracycline-resistant strains of Pasteurella multocida and P. haemolytica isolated from cattle in California. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1998; 212:1001-5.

7. Gourlay R N, Thomas L H, Wyld S G. Experimental Pasteurella multocida pneumonia in calves. Res Vet Sci 1989; 47:185-9.

8. Bryson D G, McFerran J B, Ball H J, et al. Observations on outbreaks of respiratory disease in housed calves—(1) Epidemiological, clinical and microbiological findings. Vet Rec 1978; 103:485-9.

9. Virtala A M, Mechor G D, Grohn Y T, et al. Epidemiologic and pathologic characteristics of respiratory tract disease in dairy heifers during the first three months of life. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1996; 208:2035-42.

10. Boyce J D, Adler B. The capsule is a virulence determinant in the pathogenesis of Pasteurella multocida M1404 (B:2). Infect Immun 2000; 68:3463-8.

11. Rimler R B, Rebers P A, Phillips M. Lipopolysaccharides of the Heddleston serotypes of Pasteurella multocida. Am J Vet Res 1984; 45:759-63.

12. Brogden K A, Rimler R B, Cutlip R C, et al. Incubation of Pasteurella haemolytica and Pasteurella multocida lipopolysaccharide with sheep lung surfactant. Am J Vet Res 1986; 47:727-9.

13. Confer A W, Suckow M A, Miloscio L, et al. Intranasal vaccination of rabbits with Pasteurella multocida a:3 OMPs and IROMPs. Proc. Conf Res Workers Anim Dis 80th Ann Mtg. 1999.

14. Geschwend G, Feist H, Erler W. [Investigation of outer membrane proteins of Pasteurella. 2: Iron-regulated outer membrane proteins of Pasteurella multocida and Pasteurella haemolytica]. Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochenschr 1997; 110:386-90.

15. Negrete-Abascal E, Tenorio V R, de la Garza M. Secretion of proteases from Pasteurella multocida isolates. Curr Microbiol 1999; 38:64-7.

16. Straus D C, Purdy C W, Loan R W, et al. In vivo production of neuraminidase by Pasteurella haemolytica in market stressed cattle after natural infection. Curr Microbiol 1998; 37:240-4.

17. White D J, Jolley W L, Purdy C W, et al. Extracellular neuraminidase production by a Pasteurella multocida A:3 strain associated with bovine pneumonia Infect Immun 1995; 63:1703-9.

18. Galdiero M, Palomba E, De L, et al. Effects of the major Pasteurella multocida porin on bovine neutrophils. Am J Vet Res 1998; 59:1270-4.

19. Fuller T E, Kennedy M J, Lowery D E. Identification of Pasteurella multocida virulence genes in a septicemic mouse model using signature-tagged mutagenesis. Microb Pathog 2000; 29:25-38.

20. May B J, Zhang Q, Li L L, et al. Complete genomic sequence of Pasteurella multocida, Pm70. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001; 98:3460-5.

21. Blyn L B, Braaten B A, Low D A. Regulation of pap pilin phase variation by a mechanism involving differential dam methylation states. Embo J 1990; 9:4045-54.

22. Braaten B A, Nou X, Kaltenbach L S, et al. Methylation patterns in pap regulatory DNA control pyelonephritis-associated pili phase variation in E. coli. Cell 1994; 76:577-88.

23. van der Woude M W, Low D A. Leucine-responsive regulatory protein and deoxyadenosine methylase control the phase variation and expression of the sfa and daa pili operons in Escherichia coli. Mol Microbiol 1994; 11:605-18.

24. Henderson I R, Owen P. The major phase-variable outer membrane protein of Escherichia coli structurally resembles the immunoglobulin A1 protease class of exported protein and is regulated by a novel mechanism involving Dam and oxyR. J Bacteriol 1999; 181:2132-41.

25. Heithoff D M, Sinsheimer R L, Low D A, et al. An essential role for DNA adenine methylation in bacterial virulence. Science 1999; 284:967-70.

26. Julio S M, Heithoff D M, Provenzano D, et al. DNA adenine methylase is essential for viability and plays a role in the pathogenesis of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and Vibrio cholerae. Infect Immun 2001; 69:7610-5.

27. Fleischmann R D, Adams M D, White O, et al. Whole-genome random sequencing and assembly of Haemophilus influenzas Rd. Science 1995; 269:496-512.

28. Palner B R, Marinus M G. The dam and dcm strains of Escherichia coli—a review. Gene 1994; 143:1-12.

29. Ausubel F M B R, Kingston R E, Moore D D, Seidman J G, Smith J A, Struhl K. Current Protocols in Molecular Biology. New York, N.Y.: John Wiley and Sons, 1994.

30. Altschul S F, Madden T L, Schaffer A A , et al. Gapped BLAST and PSI-BLAST: a new generation of protein database search programs. Nucleic Acids Res 1997; 25:3389-402.

31. Thompson J D, Higgins D G, Gibson T J. CLUSTAL W: improving the sensitivity of progressive multiple sequence alignment through sequence weighting, position-specific gap penalties and weight matrix choice. Nucleic Acids Res 1994; 22:4673-80.

32. Reese M G, Harris N L, Eeckman F H. Large scale sequencing specific neural networks for promoter and splice site recognition. Biocomputing: Proceedings of the 1996 Pacific Symposium 1996.

33. Willson P J, Albritton W L, Slaney L, et al. Characterization of a multiple antibiotic resistance plasmid from Haemophilus ducreyi. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1989; 33:1627-30.

34. Jablonski L, Sriranganathan N, Boyle S M, et al. Conditions for transformation of Pasteurella multocida by electroporation. Microb Pathog 1992; 12:63-8.

35. Jonczyk P, Hines R, Smith D W. The Escherichia coli dam gene is expressed as a distal gene of a new operon. Mol Gen Genet 1989; 217:85-96.

36. Herman G E, Modrich P. Escherichia coli K-12 clones that overproduce dam methylase are hypermutable. J Bacteriol 1981; 145:644-6.

37. Glickman B, van den Elsen P, Radman M. Induced mutagenesis in dam-mutants of Escherichia coli: a role for 6-methyladenine residues in mutation avoidance. Mol Gen Genet 1978; 163:307-12.

38. Bale A, d'Alarcao M, Marinus M G. Characterization of DNA adenine methylation mutants of Escherichia coli K12. Mutat Res 1979; 59:157-65.

39. Marinus M G, Morris N R. Biological function for 6-methyladenine residues in the DNA of Escherichia coli K12. J Mol Biol 1974; 85:309-22.

40. Geier G E, Modrich P. Recognition sequence of the dam methylase of Escherichia coli K12 and mode of cleavage of Dpn I endonuclease. J Biol Chem 1979; 254:1408-13.

41. Modrich P. Methyl-directed DNA mismatch correction. J Biol Chem 1989; 264:6597-600.

42. Marinus M G, Poteete A, Arraj J A. Correlation of DNA adenine methylase activity with spontaneous mutability in Escherichia coli K-12. Gene 1984; 28:123-5.

43. Heithoff D M, Enioutina E Y, Daynes R A, et al. Salnonella DNA adenine methylase mutants confer cross-protective immunity. Infect Immun 2001; 69:6725-30.

44. Confer A W, Nutt S H, Dabo S M, et al. Antibody responses of cattle to outer membrane proteins of Pasteurella multocida A:3. Am J Vet Res 1996; 57:1453-7.

45. Adler B, Bulach D, Chung J, et al. Candidate vaccine antigens and genes in Pasteurella multocida. J Biotechnol 1999; 73:83-90.

46. Cardella M A, Adviento M A, Nervig R M. Vaccination studies against experimental bovine Pasteurella pneumonia. Can J Vet Res 1987; 51:204-11.

47. Panciera R J, Corstvet R E, Confer A W, et al. Bovine pneumonic pasteurellosis: effect of vaccination with live Pasteurella species. Am J Vet Res 1984; 45:2538-42.

48. Chengappa M M, McLaughlin B G, Kadel W L, et al. Efficacy of a live Pasteurella multocida vaccine for the prevention of experimentally induced bovine pneumonic pasteurellosis. Vet Microbiol 1989; 21:147-54. 

1. An attenuated strain of a bacteria, said bacteria comprising altered DNA adenine methylase (Dam) activity such that the bacteria are attenuated.
 2. The attenuated strain of claim 1, wherein the altered activity reduces Dam activity.
 3. The attenuated strain of claim 2, wherein the altered activity eliminates Dam activity.
 4. The attenuated strain of claim 1, wherein the altered activity is obtained by a deletion in a dam gene.
 5. The attenuated strain of claim 1, wherein the altered activity is obtained by an increase in expression of Dam.
 6. The attenuated strain of claim 1, wherein the bacteria is an attenuated form of Haemophilus.
 7. The attenuated strain of claim 1, wherein the bacteria are an attenuated form of a bacteria selected from the group consisting of: Salmonella enterica serovars, E. coli, Non Typable Haemophilus influenza, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, Shigella Spp., Vibro cholerae, Yersinia Spp., Neisseria meningitidis, Porphyromonas gingivalis, and Legionella pneumonphila.
 8. The attenuated strain of claim 1, wherein the bacteria are an attenuated form of a bacteria selected from the group consisting of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, Haemophilus somnus, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Pasteurella multocida, and Mannheimia haemolytica.
 9. The attenuated strain of claim 1, wherein the altered activity is obtained by an artificially engineered change in a genome of a wild-type pathogenic bacteria.
 10. The attenuated strain of claim 9, wherein the change in the bacteria's genome is a change selected from the group consisting of a deletion, an insertion and a mutation of the native sequence.
 11. The attenuated strain of claim 1, wherein the altered activity is obtained by a heterologous nucleotide inserted into a wild-type pathogenic bacteria.
 12. The attenuated strain of claim 11, wherein the heterologous nucleotide is operatively inserted into a plasmid and expresses DNA adenine methylase.
 13. The attenuated strain of claim 1, wherein the bacteria are an attenuated form of a pathogenic bacteria selected from the group consisting of Escherichia, Vibrio, Yersinia and Salmonella.
 14. The attenuated strain of claim 13, wherein the bacteria are an attenuated form of a pathogenic salmonella bacteria selected from the group consisting of S. typhimurium, S. entertidis, S. typhi, S. abortus-ovi, S. abortus-equi, S. dublin, S. gallinarum, and S. pullorum.
 15. The attenuated strain of claim 13, wherein the bacteria are an attenuated form of E. coli.
 16. The attenuated strain of claim 13, wherein the bacteria are an attenuated form of V. cholerae.
 17. The attenuated stain of claim 13, wherein the bacteria are an attenuated form of Y. psuedotubercolosis.
 18. The attenuated strain of claim 1, wherein the bacteria are an attenuated form of a bacteria selected from the group consisting of Shigella, Haemophilus, Bordetella, Neisseria, Pasteurella and Tremonema.
 19. The attenuated strain of claim 1, wherein the bacteria are an attenuated form of a bacteria selected from the group consisting of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, Haemophilus somnus, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Pasterurella multocida, and Mannheimia haemolytica.
 20. The attenuated strain of claim 1, wherein the bacteria are an attenuated form of Haemophilus.
 21. A composition comprising: a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient; and bacteria with altered DNA adenine methylase (Dam) activity which altered DNA adenine methylase activity renders the bacteria non-pathogenic.
 22. The composition of claim 21, further comprising an adjuvant.
 23. An immunogenic composition comprising: a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient; and live bacteria comprising altered DNA adenine methylase activity wherein the altered activity reduces virulence relative to the bacteria with wild-type Dam activity.
 24. The immunogenic composition of claim 23, wherein the Dam activity is altered by a heterologous nucleotide.
 25. The immunogenic composition of claim 23, wherein the Dam activity is altered by a mutation in the bacteria's genome which mutation alters a gene involved in expressing Dam in a manner selected from the group consisting of reduced expression, no expession, overexpression expession of a form of Dam altered from Dam native to the bacteria.
 26. A method comprising steps of: administering to a subject capable of generating an immune response a composition comprising a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, an immunogenic dose of altered bacteria with altered DNA adenine methylase (Dam) activity which bacteria are attenuated; and allowing the composition to remain in the subject for a time and under conditions to allow the subject to generate an immune response to the bacteria and produce antibodies specific to the bacteria.
 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the antibodies generated are IgG type antibodies.
 28. The method of claim 27, wherein the IgG antibodies are highly specific for an antigen of the bacteria.
 29. The method of claim 26, wherein the bacteria remain in the subject under conditions and for a period of time sufficient to allow for B cells of the subject to undergo isotype switching and further for the B cells to undergo clonal expansion.
 30. The method of claim 29, wherein an amount of antibodies produced by the subject exceeds 150% of an amount of antibodies which would be produced by the subject administered unaltered bacteria in amount equivalent to the immunogenic dose of altered bacteria.
 31. The method of claim 26, wherein the bacteria are selected from the group consisting of Escherichia, Vibrio, Yersinia and Salmonella.
 32. The method of claim 26, wherein the bacteria are Haemophilus.
 33. A method of eliciting an immune response in an individual, comprising: administering an immunogenic composition to an individual in an amount sufficient to elicit an immune response wherein the composition comprises a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and a bacteria comprising a genome characterized by a mutation altering DNA adenine methylase (Dam) activity such that the bacteria is attenuated; allowing the composition to remain in the individual for a time and under conditions to allow the individual to generate an immune response.
 34. The method of claim 33, wherein the bacteria are Haemophilus.
 35. An attenuated strain of a bacteria, said bacteria comprising a cloned dam gene capable of altered DNA adenine methylase (Dam) activity such that said bacteria are attenuated and suitable for use as a live vaccine.
 36. The attenuated strain of claim 35, wherein said altered activity increases Dam expression.
 37. The attenuated strain of claim 36, wherein said increased Dam expression is obtained by control of said cloned dam gene by a promoter.
 38. The attenuated strain of claim 37, wherein said promoter is selected from the group consisting of a lac promoter, tac promoter, araBAD promoter, trc promoter, trp promoter, T7, SP6, or T5 bacteriophage promoters, a native promoter from that species, or other appropriate promoter.
 39. The attenuated strain of claim 35, wherein said bacteria is a species of the Pasteurellaceae family.
 40. The attenuated strain of claim 35, wherein the bacteria are an attenuated form of a bacteria selected from the group consisting of Pasteurella multocida, Mannheimia haemolytica, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Haemophilus somnus, Actinobacillus suis, and Haemophilus parasuis.
 41. A composition comprising: a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier in combination with a bacteria demonstrating altered DNA adenine methlyase (Dam) activity, said altered activity being overexpression of Dam, whereby said overexpression of Dam renders the bacteria non-pathogenic and suitable as an attenuated live bacterial vaccine.
 42. The composition of claim 41, wherein said over expression is obtained by control of said cloned dam gene by a promoter.
 43. The composition of claim 42, wherein said promoter is selected from the group consisting of a lac promoter, tac promoter, araBAD promoter, trc promoter, trp promoter, T7, SP6, or T5 bacteriophage promoters, a native promoter from that species, or other appropriate promoter.
 44. The composition of claim 41, wherein said bacteria is a species of the Pasteurellaceae family.
 45. The composition of claim 41, wherein said bacteria are an attenuated form of a bacteria selected from the group consisting of Pasteurella nultocida, Mannheimia haemolytica, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Haemophilus somnus, Actinobacillus suis, and Haemophilus parasuis.
 46. A method of producing an attenuated live vaccine comprising: cloning a dam gene of a bacterial species into a plasmid; said plasma comprising a promoter capable of controlling the expression of said dam gene; introducing said plasmid to a wild type of said bacteria species so as to produce bacteria which demonstrate altered DNA adenine methylase (Dam) activity such that said bacteria are rendered non-pathogenic and suitable for use as an attenuated live bacterial vaccine.
 47. The method of claim 46, wherein said expression of said dam gene is overexpressed.
 48. The method of claim 47, wherein said overexpression is obtained by control of said cloned dam gene by a promoter.
 49. The method of claim 48, wherein said promoter is selected from the group consisting of a lac promoter, tac promoter, araBAD promoter, trc promoter, trp promoter, T7, SP6, or T5 bacteriophage promoters, a native promoter from that species, or other appropriate promoter.
 50. The method of claim 46, wherein said bacteria is a species of the Pasterurellaceae family.
 51. The method of claim 46, wherein the bacteria are an attenuated form of a bacteria selected from the group consisting of Pasteurella multocida, Mannheimia haemolytica, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Haemophilus somnus, Actinobacillus suis, and Haemophilus parasuis.
 52. The method of claim 46, wherein said plasmid is stabilized by treating a mutation in a chromosome of said bacteria, said mutation being lethal to said bacteria under predetermined conditions.
 53. A method of providing a level of immunity to infection by a pathogenic bacteria comprising: providing an attenuated strain of bacteria, said attenuated strain comprising a cloned dam gene capable of altered DNA adenine methylase (Dam) activity such that said bacteria are attenuated and suitable for use as a live vaccine; providing a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier; combining said attenuated strain of bacterial with said carrier to produce a dose of vaccine suitable for use by a subject capable of being infected by said bacteria; administering to said subject said dose of vaccine in sufficient quantity to illicit an immune response to said pathogenic bacteria, said response being sufficient to produce antibodies to said pathogenic bacteria.
 54. The method of claim 53, wherein said altered Dam activity increases Dam expression.
 55. The method of claim 54, wherein said increased Dam expression is obtained by control of said cloned dam gene by a promoter.
 56. The method of claim 55, wherein said promoter is selected from the group consisting of a lac promoter, tac promoter, araBAD promoter, trc promoter, trp promoter, T7, SP6, or T5 bacteriophage promoters, a native promoter from that species, or other appropriate promoter.
 57. The method of claim 53, wherein said bacteria is a species of the Pasterurellaceae family.
 58. The method of claim 53, wherein the bacteria are an attenuated form of a bacteria selected from the group consisting of Pasteurella multocida, Mannheimia haemolytica, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Haemophilus somnus, Actinobacillus suis, and Haemophilus parasuis.
 59. A method of producing an attenuated live vaccine comprising: providing a pathogenic bacteria having a dam gene and a chromosomal promoter for said dam gene; altering the chromosomal promoter for said dam gene, whereby said altered promoter of said dam gene causes altered expression of DNA adenine methylase (Dam) by said pathogenic bacteria such that said pathogenic bacteria are rendered non-pathogenic and suitable for use as an attenuated live bacterial vaccine.
 60. The method of claim 59, wherein said expression of said dam gene is overexpressed.
 61. The method of claim 59, wherein said altering of said promoter comprises replacement of said promoter.
 62. The method of claim 61, wherein said promoter is selected from the group consisting of a lac promoter, tac promoter, araBAD promoter, trc promoter, trp promoter, T7, SP6, or T5 bacteriophage promoters, a native promoter from that species, or other appropriate promoter.
 63. The method of claim 59, wherein said bacteria is a species of the Pasterurellaceae family.
 64. The method of claim 59, wherein the bacteria are an attenuated form of a bacteria selected from the group consisting of Pasteurella multocida, Mannheimia haemolytica, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Haemophilus somnus, Actinobacillus suis, and Haemophilus parasuis.
 65. A method of providing a level of immunity to infection by a pathogenic bacteria comprising: providing an attenuated strain of bacteria, said attenuated strain comprising a bacteria having a dam gene under the control of an altered promoter and being capable of altered DNA adenine methylase (Dam) activity such that said bacteria are attenuated and suitable for use as a live vaccine; providing a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier; combining said attenuated strain of bacterial with said carrier to produce a dose of vaccine suitable for use by a subject capable of being infected by said bacteria; administering to said subject said dose of vaccine in sufficient quantity to illicit an immune response to said pathogenic bacteria, said response being sufficient to produce antibodies to said pathogenic bacteria.
 66. The method of claim 65, wherein said altered Dam activity increases Dam expression.
 67. The method of claim 65 wherein said altered Dam activity decreases Dam expression.
 68. The method of claim 65, wherein said promoter is selected from the group consisting of a lac promoter, tac promoter, araBAD promoter, trc promoter, trp promoter, T7, SP6, or T5 bacteriophage promoters, a native promoter from that species, or other appropriate promoter.
 69. The method of claim 65, wherein said bacteria is a species of the Pasterurellaceae family.
 70. The method of claim 65, wherein the bacteria are an attenuated form of a bacteria selected from the group consisting of Pasteurella multocida, Mannheimia haemolytica, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Haemophilus somnus, Actinobacillus suis, and Haemophilus parasuis
 71. A method of producing an attenuated live vaccine comprising: providing a pathogenic bacteria having a native dam gene; causing a genetic alteration affecting said dam gene, whereby said alteration of said dam gene causes altered expression of DNA adenine methylase (Dam) by said pathogenic bacteria such that said pathogenic bacteria are rendered non-pathogenic and suitable for use as an attenuated live bacterial vaccine.
 72. The method of claim 71, wherein said genetic alteration comprises replacing said native dam gene of said pathogenic bacteria with a different dam gene.
 73. The method of claim 71, wherein said genetic alteration comprises causing a mutation of said native dam gene of said pathogenic bacteria.
 74. The method of claim 73, wherein said mutation of said native dam gene comprises using a cloned native dam gene of said pathogenic bacteria and mutating said native dam gene by a method selected from the group consisting of homologous recombination, transposon mutagenesis and site directed mutagenesis.
 75. The method of claim 71, wherein said expression of said dam gene is overexpressed.
 76. The method of claim 71, wherein said expression of said dam gene is reduced.
 77. The method of claim 71, wherein said bacteria is a species of the Pasterurellaceae family.
 78. The method of claim 71, wherein the bacteria are an attenuated form of a bacteria selected from the group consisting of Pasteurella multocida, Mannheimia haemolytica, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Haemophilus somnus, Actinobacillus suis, and Haemophilus parasuis.
 79. The method of claim 71, wherein said genetic alteration affecting said dam gene comprises causing a mutation in at least one gene other than said dam gene, said at least one gene being upstream or downstream of said dam gene and capable of affecting Dam production or activity.
 80. The method of claim 71, wherein said altered Dam expression comprises altered Dam having less activity than Dam expressed by native pathogenic bacteria.
 81. A method of providing a level of immunity to infection by a pathogenic bacteria comprising: providing an attenuated strain of bacteria, said attenuated strain comprising a bacteria having a dam gene, said dam gene expressing altered DNA adenine methylase (Dam) activity such that said bacteria are attenuated and suitable for use as a live vaccine; providing a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier; combining said attenuated strain of bacterial with said carrier to produce a dose of vaccine suitable for use by a subject capable of being infected by said bacteria; administering to said subject said dose of vaccine in sufficient quantity to illicit an immune response to said pathogenic bacteria, said response being sufficient to produce antibodies to said pathogenic bacteria.
 82. The method of claim 81, wherein said altered Dam activity increases Dam expression.
 83. The method of claim 81 wherein said altered Dam activity decreases Dam expression.
 84. The method of claim 81, wherein said bacteria is a species of the Pasterurellaceae family.
 85. The method of claim 81, wherein the bacteria are an attenuated form of a bacteria selected from the group consisting of Pasteurella multocida, Mannheimia haemolytica, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Haemophilus somnus, Actinobacillus suis, and Haemophilus parasuis. 